Image Gallery
Chapter S09
FIGURE S9.1Atlantic Ocean surface height (cm) and surface current names (Table S9.1). Data from Niiler, Maximenko, and McWilliams (2003).
FIGURE S9.2abGeostrophic circulation at (a) 250 dbar, (b) 1000 dbar, and (c) 1500 dbar. The contours are steric height (10 m2 s−2), adjusted to represent the absolute circulation. Source: From Reid (1994).
FIGURE S09.02cGeostrophic circulation at (a) 250 dbar, (b) 1000 dbar, and (c) 1500 dbar. The contours are steric height (10 m2 s−2), adjusted to represent the absolute circulation. Source: From Reid (1994).
FIGURE S9.3aAnnual mean winds. (a) Wind stress (N/m2) (vectors) and wind-stress curl (× 10−7 N/m3) (color), multiplied by −1 in the Southern Hemisphere. (b) Sverdrup transport (Sv), where blue is clockwise and yellow-red is counterclockwise circulation. Data are from the NCEP reanalysis 1968–1996 (Kalnay et al., 1996).
FIGURE S9.3bAnnual mean winds. (a) Wind stress (N/m2) (vectors) and wind-stress curl (× 10−7 N/m3) (color), multiplied by −1 in the Southern Hemisphere. (b) Sverdrup transport (Sv), where blue is clockwise and yellow-red is counterclockwise circulation. Data are from the NCEP reanalysis 1968–1996 (Kalnay et al., 1996).
FIGURE S9.4Annual mean buoyancy forcing, using fluxes for 1997–2006. Data are from Large and Yeager (2009). (a) Net air–sea heat flux (W/m2). (b) Buoyancy forcing (equivalent W/m2). (c,d) Net evaporation minus (precipitation + runoff) (cm/yr and equivalent W/m2). Values less than 10 W/m2 are white.
FIGURE S9.5a(a) Modeled transport streamfunction. Source: From Johns, Townsend, Fratantoni, and Wilson (2002). (b) Mean velocity from surface drifters (1968–2003); velocities greater than 25 cm/sec are in red. Source: From Richardson (2005).
FIGURE S9.5b(a) Modeled transport streamfunction. Source: From Johns, Townsend, Fratantoni, and Wilson (2002). (b) Mean velocity from surface drifters (1968–2003); velocities greater than 25 cm/sec are in red. Source: From Richardson (2005).
FIGURE S9.6Flow through Yucatan Channel. (a) Mooring locations for August 1999 to June 2001. (b) Mean northward velocity (cm/sec). Gray is northward flow, white is southward flow. Source: From Candela et al. (2003).
FIGURE S9.7(a) Florida Current, Gulf Stream, Deep Western Boundary Current, and common eddy features. Source: From Schmitz (1996), after Bane (1994). (b) Average 25–75 m velocity from one crossing. Source: From Beal et al. (2008). (c) Annual cycle and (d) long-term record of Florida Current transports (solid) with the monthly mean North Atlantic Oscillation index (dashed). Source: From Baringer and Larsen (2001).
FIGURE S9.8Florida Strait in September, 1981. (a) Geostrophic velocity (cm/sec). ©American Meteorological Society. Reprinted with permission. Source: From Roemmich (1983). (b) Potential density σ θ (kg/m3), (c) potential temperature (°C), and (d) salinity.
FIGURE S9.9Gulf Stream properties at 66°W (World Ocean Circulation Experiment section A22 in August, 1997). (a) Potential density σθ, (b) potential temperature (°C), (c) salinity, (d) potential temperature with potential density σθ as the vertical coordinate.
FIGURE S9.10North Atlantic Current formation region: (a) including the Deep Western Boundary Current (DWBC) ©American Meteorological Society. Reprinted with permission. Source: From Pickart, McKee, Torres, and Harrington (1999), and (b) including eastward detrainments. NAC (North Atlantic Current), GS (Gulf Stream), LC (Labrador Current), SPF (Subpolar Front), FC (Flemish Cap), TGB (Tail of the Grand Banks). Source: From Rossby (1999).
FIGURE S9.11Eddy kinetic energy of the North Atlantic Ocean (cm2/s2) from surface drifter observations from 1990 to 1999. Source: From Fratantoni (2001).
FIGURE S9.12Gulf Stream rings. (a) Schematic of cold core ring formation from multi-ship observations in Operation Cabot. After Parker (1971). (b,c) Warm core ring observations in April 1982: velocity at 28 m depth and depth of the 10 °C isotherm, and azimuthal velocity near the sea surface (bars) with modeled velocity (solid curve). Source: From Olson, Schmitt, Kennelly, and Joyce (1985).
FIGURE S9.13(a) Surface circulation of the South Atlantic using a temperature/salinity climatology and a β-spiral inverse. ©American Meteorological Society. Reprinted with permission. Source: From Juliano and Alvés (2007) with labels added. (b) Streamfunction for the barotropic flow (contours), with pathways of eddies and Rossby waves (yellow) and Kelvin waves (red). Shading is the eddy kinetic energy where it is especially high. Source: From Biastoch, Böning, and Lutjeharms (2008).
FIGURE S9.14(a) Schematic of currents and fronts in the confluence region of the Malvinas (Falkland) and Brazil Currents. Source: From Peterson (1992). (b) Brazil Current transports, in the thermocline layer (Central Water), based on hydrographic sections (straight lines). Each solid contour is 5 Sv. After Zemba (1991). (c) Location and trajectories of warm core Brazil Current rings from 1993 to 1998, superimposed on the rms sea-surface height variability from altimetry data. Source: From Lentini, Goni, and Olson (2006).
FIGURE S9.15abAgulhas ring “Astrid” in March 2000. (a) SST satellite image. Source: From Peeters et al. (2004). (b) Velocity (m/s) from an LADCP, (c) potential temperature, and (d) salinity. Source: From van Aken et al. (2003).
FIGURE S9.15cdAgulhas ring “Astrid” in March 2000. (a) SST satellite image. Source: From Peeters et al. (2004). (b) Velocity (m/s) from an LADCP, (c) potential temperature, and (d) salinity. Source: From van Aken et al. (2003).
FIGURE S9.16Deep Gulf Stream structure. (a,b) Mean velocity at 700 and 2000 m, averaged in 1° bins, from acoustically tracked floats. Vectors show mean flow direction and speed; ellipses are the variance. Source: From Owens (1991). (c) Mean velocities at 4000 m from current meter observations in the 1970s and suggested streamlines. Source: From Hogg (1983).
FIGURE S9.17Deep Brazil and Malvinas Current structure. (a) Mean velocity and (b) circulation schematic at intermediate depth (650–1050 m) based on subsurface floats from different experiments during 1989–1996. Source: From Boebel et al. (1999).
FIGURE S9.18Mid-depth Labrador Sea circulation. (a) Velocity (cm/sec) and (b) geostrophic pressure (cm) at 700 m from profiling float observations. Source: From Lavender, Davis, and Owens. (2000).
FIGURE S9.19Mid-depth subpolar circulation. Mean transport streamfunctions on isopycnal σ θ = 27.5 kg/m3, based on acoustically tracked isopycnal floats. Source: From Bower et al.(2002).
FIGURE S9.20aMean velocities from current meter deployments in Denmark Strait and along the coast of Greenland from 1986 to 1991. Left to right: Cape Farewell (southern tip of Greenland), 63, 64, and 65°S. Small inset at bottom: just south of the strait. The map shows the location of each line of moorings. Source: From Dickson and Brown (1994).
FIGURE S9.20bMean velocities from current meter deployments in Denmark Strait and along the coast of Greenland from 1986 to 1991. Left to right: Cape Farewell (southern tip of Greenland), 63, 64, and 65°S. Small inset at bottom: just south of the strait. The map shows the location of each line of moorings. Source: From Dickson and Brown (1994).
FIGURE S9.21Deep Western Boundary Current (DWBC) east of the Grand Banks. (a) Mean velocity (color) and transports (numbers in Sv) and (b) transport time series for the DWBC, all deep water and the North Atlantic Current, from current meters at 42°N, 45°W east of the Grand Banks (location in Figure 9.44). Acronyms: LSW, Labrador Sea Water; uLSW, upper LSW; DSOW, Denmark Strait Overflow Water; and GFZW, Gibbs Fracture Zone Water, which is called Northeast Atlantic Deep Water or Iceland Scotland Overflow Water by others. ©American Meteorological Society. Reprinted with permission. Source: From Schott et al. (2004).
FIGURE S9.22aDWBC east of Florida. (a) DWBC and Antilles Current mean velocity section (Lowered ADCP observations) and (b) location of Abaco moorings (26.5°N). ©American Meteorological Society. Reprinted with permission. Source: From Johns et al. (2008).
FIGURE S9.22bDWBC east of Florida. (a) DWBC and Antilles Current mean velocity section (Lowered ADCP observations) and (b) location of Abaco moorings (26.5°N). ©American Meteorological Society. Reprinted with permission. Source: From Johns et al. (2008).
FIGURE S9.23aDWBC east of Brazil. (a) Schematic of the DWBC (blue) and its breakup into eddies south of 8°S. Acronyms for currents are as in Table S9.3. Source: From Dengler et al. (2004). (b) NADW (2500 m) flows in the Brazil Basin based on acoustically tracked floats: float displacements over 800 days. Source: From Hogg and Owens (1999). (c) Mean velocities at current meters at the 30°S moored array across Vema and Hunter Channels. Shaded regions are northward flow. ©American Meteorological Society. Reprinted with permission. Source: From Hogg, Siedler, & Zenk (1999).
FIGURE S9.23bDWBC east of Brazil. (a) Schematic of the DWBC (blue) and its breakup into eddies south of 8°S. Acronyms for currents are as in Table S9.3. Source: From Dengler et al. (2004). (b) NADW (2500 m) flows in the Brazil Basin based on acoustically tracked floats: float displacements over 800 days. Source: From Hogg and Owens (1999). (c) Mean velocities at current meters at the 30°S moored array across Vema and Hunter Channels. Shaded regions are northward flow. ©American Meteorological Society. Reprinted with permission. Source: From Hogg, Siedler, & Zenk (1999).
FIGURE S9.23cDWBC east of Brazil. (a) Schematic of the DWBC (blue) and its breakup into eddies south of 8°S. Acronyms for currents are as in Table S9.3. Source: From Dengler et al. (2004). (b) NADW (2500 m) flows in the Brazil Basin based on acoustically tracked floats: float displacements over 800 days. Source: From Hogg and Owens (1999). (c) Mean velocities at current meters at the 30°S moored array across Vema and Hunter Channels. Shaded regions are northward flow. ©American Meteorological Society. Reprinted with permission. Source: From Hogg, Siedler, & Zenk (1999).
FIGURE S9.24Meridional transport (geostrophic velocity) at 24–26.5°N in the North Atlantic for five different years. (a) Full depth, (b) 0 to 1000 m, and (c) 1000 m to bottom. Source: From Bryden, Longworth, and Cunningham (2005b).
FIGURE S9.25Northward transports (Sv) across zonal sections in isopycnal layers, integrated upward from zero at the bottom. Section latitudes are indicated in parentheses. Ekman transport is not included. Gray indicates the uncertainty. Source: From Ganachaud (2003).
FIGURE S9.26Schematic temperature — salinity diagram for the main water masses of the Atlantic Ocean.
FIGURE S9.27Atlantic Ocean: mean T-S curves and one standard deviation curves by 5 ° squares. Extended caption: The largest variability (large standard deviation) is at 40–50 °N off the east coast of North America, due to the Gulf Stream and North Atlantic Current, which each separate strongly contrasting water masses (fresh, cold on the north/west side and saltier, warmer on the south/east side). At 4–6 °C the salinity minimum of the AAIW is well marked in the tropics. It erodes to the north, losing its character by about 20 °N. The North Atlantic Central Water connects the AAIW to the high salinity near-surface or surface waters. The STUW (near-surface salinity maximum) is present throughout the tropics south of 20 °N. Salinity is highest at the sea surface in the central subtropical gyre; this is the surface source region of the subducted STUW to the south. The Gulf Stream system also has a near-surface salinity maximum, due to northward advection of STUW and saline Central Water, which is overrun by fresher slope water. At mid-latitudes, off the Strait of Gibraltar, the saline outflow from the Mediterranean leads to the salinity maximum of the Mediterranean Water at mid-depth at about 10 °C. From the sharp bend in the T-S curves this maximum can be traced as it spreads north, west, and south. In northern latitudes, all temperatures are below 15 °C. In the Labrador Sea, the upper ocean waters are colder (and fresher) than the underlying salinity maximum of the NEADW and NSOW. In contrast, the waters in the central far North Atlantic appear almost isohaline over the entire temperature range.
FIGURE S9.28Subtropical Underwater. Vertical sections of (a) salinity and (b) oxygen (µmol/kg) with selected potential density contours, along approximately 25°W in the Atlantic Ocean. (c) Salinity at σ θ = 25.0 kg/m3.
FIGURE S9.29aSouth Atlantic Subtropical Mode Water. (a) Thickness of the 14–16°C layer. (b) Vertical temperature derivative along the east-west section in red on the map; 12, 14, 16, and 18°C isotherms are indicated as black contours. Source: From Provost et al. (1999).
FIGURE S9.29bSouth Atlantic Subtropical Mode Water. (a) Thickness of the 14–16°C layer. (b) Vertical temperature derivative along the east-west section in red on the map; 12, 14, 16, and 18°C isotherms are indicated as black contours. Source: From Provost et al. (1999).
FIGURE S9.30aSubpolar Mode Water (SPMW). (a) Potential density (σ θ) and (b) thickness (m) of the late winter mixed layer, shown only where the mixed layer is more than 200 m thick. This thick mixed layer is the SPMW. ©American Meteorological Society. Reprinted with permission. Source: From McCartney and Talley (1982).
FIGURE S9.30bSubpolar Mode Water (SPMW). (a) Potential density (σ θ) and (b) thickness (m) of the late winter mixed layer, shown only where the mixed layer is more than 200 m thick. This thick mixed layer is the SPMW. ©American Meteorological Society. Reprinted with permission. Source: From McCartney and Talley (1982).
FIGURE S9.31Labrador Sea Water. (a) Mixed layer depths in winter (1996–1998) from profiling floats. Red: >800 m. Blue: 400 to 800 m. Green: <400 m. Source: From Lavender et al. (2000). (b) Potential density profiles from a deep convection region in the Labrador Sea in late winter of 1997 (“119” in the deep convection patch, “62” in a western boundary convection regime, “59” typical of stratified water). (c) Vertical section through the Labrador Sea in late winter 1997 that includes deep convection stations. ©American Meteorological Society. Reprinted with permission. Source: From Pickart, Torres, and Clarke (2002).
FIGURE S9.32aMeddies. (a) Occurrences in historical hydrographic data, superimposed on a map of salinity anomaly of Mediterranean Water near 1100 m depth. (b) Float trajectories in Meddies. Source: From Richardson, Bower, and Zenk (2000).
FIGURE S9.32bMeddies. (a) Occurrences in historical hydrographic data, superimposed on a map of salinity anomaly of Mediterranean Water near 1100 m depth. (b) Float trajectories in Meddies. Source: From Richardson, Bower, and Zenk (2000).
FIGURE S9.33Meddy structure. (a) Salinity and (b) potential density through the only two Meddies found on a synoptic section in 1988, with adjacent profiles, at 26°N, 26°W (large dots on inset map). Inset map: salinity contoured at potential density referenced to 1000 dbar = 32.2 kg/m3 (around σθ = 27.65 kg/m3), with all stations from the 1988 section. After Tsuchiya, Talley, and McCartney (1992).
FIGURE S9.34aAntarctic Intermediate Water. (a) Salinity at the AAIW salinity minimum. (b) Oxygen (ml/L) at the AAIW oxygen maximum. Source: From Talley (1996b).
FIGURE S9.34bAntarctic Intermediate Water. (a) Salinity at the AAIW salinity minimum. (b) Oxygen (ml/L) at the AAIW oxygen maximum. Source: From Talley (1996b).
FIGURE S9.35North Atlantic Deep Water and Circumpolar Deep Water. Oxygen (ml/L) on the isopycnal s3 = 41.44 kg/m3 (referenced to 3000 dbar), which lies at approximately 2500 m depth. Source: From Reid (1994).
FIGURE S9.36Upper, middle, and lower NADW in the tropical Atlantic. (a) Salinity and (b) oxygen (mmol/kg) along 25°W. Data were collected in 1988–1989. (World Ocean Circulation Experiment section A16)
